The British electoral system

Introduction The British electoral system has historically been involved in bi-party elections except in 1923. The modern multiparty day democracy has been restricted to two parties a tradition that borrows from the first-past-the post system in general as well as local elections. The post war conception of the liberalist a conservatism parties has continued to rule the elective regime to the present day.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The British electoral system specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Small parties have over the years been downplayed by the two major parties that have continued to dominate the voter population. Inadvertently it would be very easy to perceive of the British system as a bipartisan electoral system which isn’t the case. History Progress has been made in as far as reform of the British electoral system with specific regard to the reform act of 1832 which suffered amendment in cons ecutive years to involve the plight of women and attempts to stamp out corrupt election practices that had stained the system in the nineteenth century. It would then see the involvement of 18-20 year old in the voting process as well as the provision for absentee voters. The system has shown progress and continues to change to suit contemporary democratic concerns. The onset of the mass election concept was said to have motivated the need for the adoption of alternative methods of elections. Thanks to political scientists such as John Stuart Mill the intellectual justification that was based on the imminent risk of minority oppression. The tradition had been to allow the citizens to exercise their right to re-elect outstanding individual through the exercise of proportional representation. The proportional representative system was conceived in 1884 to take the place of the first pas the post system. For years reliance was placed on this system to provide quality leadership to parl iament. The growth and development of the nineteenth century organized parties began to gradually take the place earlier occupied by the territorial principle that motivates the popularity system (Curtice and Steed 98–249). The electoral debate spilled over into the early twentieth century provoking the attention of the royal commission which after deliberation and consultation suggested the alternative voting system. This approach was supported by nationalist idealists who sympathetically conceived the approach as an attempt to bring together and mitigate the imminent division in the communities. In preceding years the search for a conclusive legal regime to regulation led to the formulation of the representation of the people bill of 1917 which was followed by the endorsement of the alternative vote system.Advertising Looking for essay on political culture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The electoral reform debate w as taken up by the liberal party which at the time was said to be losing its position to the labor party. (Kendall and Stuart 98–249) The debate was later abandoned by the resignation of the labor government in 1931only to be picked up by the liberal party in the 1970s. Since then there have been numerous attempted at reform and counter reform of the electoral system to match the growing number of contemporary Argument Integrity It is common ground that there exists an accepted international consensus as far as the basic principles that govern a free and fair election (Benoit 69–83). The concept is built on the principles of the international human rights provisions as well as the civil and political rights convention. The provisions of these conventions require that among other things the elections should be frequently held in line with the universal suffrage doctrine. They should be governed by a set of impartial rules and regulations that oversee the registration of voters including the management and counting of the results of the subsequent elections. This ensures that transparency and fairness is maintained throughout the elections. The elections should also be adequately secured to avoid any chances of violence and duress or undue influence. The media should also provide adequate coverage of the ongoing of the various steps. There should also be a legislative regime to control the level of spending involved in the election to ensure that there is free and fair competition (Curtice and Steed 98–249). The extent to which the modern day British electoral process complies with the above parameters is subject to debate. These principles are assumed to form part of the British unwritten constitution. However the level of compliance shows a negative trend. This has led to the development of research that has led to the development of electoral reforms. Democratic audits dating from back in 1990 have provided a comprehensive assessment of t he extent to which the British electoral system complies with international democracy benchmarks. The 1999 audit suggested that alongside the critical multiple democratic concerns there lay pertinent concerns as to the harmony between the system and the internationally accepted principles and standards such as secret ballot, bribery free elections that have been freed from bribery and intimidation. (Kendall and Stuart 97–183) The system was also accused of lack of attention to the continued reduction in the number of people registering to vote. Throughout the history of the system some prisoners continued to be denied their fundamental right to vote. The same was also done to some categories of old people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The British electoral system specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The audit also brought to right the need for a particularized approach to the question of regulated campaign spending. As it were the level of spending does have a bearing on the number of votes that the candidate gets by the end of the campaign. However the restriction was only being observed at the local level and not the national level where it matters most. The local regulations themselves did little in the regulation of the effect of spending on elections. The audit also raises questions of proportionality of the electoral system. The general principle is that one man accounts for one vote and nom more. The electoral system has been often accused of accommodating unconventional practices such as manipulation of boundary reviews. The political resolve has been to invest in swing voters who provide an appropriate opportunity for the influence of electoral outcome. Modern day electoral malpractice Political scientists are at pains to conclusively establish the position of the electoral system today in as far as malpractice is concerned. This to a great extent can be blamed on the lack o f a central body that gathers that gathers data in these respects. The only vivid recourse centers remain with the crown prosecution services, the official statistics on RPA offences and the official statistics on electoral petitions. In the absence of a regulatory regime, the number of electoral offences has been said to grow from 2500 in 2000 and 2006 to 109500 different cases. (Johns and Padgett 203-227) In actuality there has been little evidence to support the claim of electoral malpractice down from year 2000. This is hard to believe especially with the onset of the postal voting practice which involves numerous variables. The reform attempts to increase voter turnout have turned futile and instead have caused low confidence in the electoral system (Curtice and Steed 98–249). The most influential misgiving of the electable system has been the negative impression on elector administration. The burden placed on the commissions is overwhelmingly large and yet there is litt le motivation to alter this stand. Conclusion Different approaches have been made in trying to get around the British electoral system. It is common ground the British system never lacks the necessary criticism.Advertising Looking for essay on political culture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The various political scientists have tirelessly addressed the need for reform and restructuring of the procedural requirements of the system it would be a great injustice to condemn the system entirely due to its all too conspicuous misgivings. The system has been successful in sticking a reasonable compromise for the British national in as far as leadership is concerned. Therefore the system has not entirely failed in its objective. In the same spirit the competitive and consensus concerns may be used to evaluate the progress of an electoral system. On these parameters the system fails to meet the required provisions required to keep afloat with the emerging modernist ideology and principles of governance. Even more importantly a two party system has been considered as an appropriate motivator of single member popularity and vice versa. In the future it is important that consideration be made to ensure that the electoral system operates in harmony with the international standards as emulated by the United Nations conventions. There is therefore a need for a root and branch reform approach to the revolutionalisation of the British electoral system. Works Cited Benoit, Kenneth. â€Å"Duverger’s Law and the Study of Electoral Systems†. French Politics (2006): 83– 469 Curtice, John and Steed, Michael. ‘Electoral Choice and the Production of Government: The Changing Operation of the Electoral System in the UK Since 1955’. British Journal of Political Science.12 (1982): 98–249 Johns, Robert and Padgett, Steven. â€Å"The role of government: public values and party politics†. In: British Social Attitudes: The 24th Report. Ed. Alison Park et al. London: Sage, 2008, 203-227. Kendall, Maurice and Stuart, Alan. â€Å"Electoral Choice and the Production of Government†: The Changing Operation of the Electoral System in the UK since 1955’. British Journal of Political Science. 12, 1983:96–244 This essay on The British electoral system was written and submitted by user Kendrick Mcdowell to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

S P D F Orbitals and Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers

S P D F Orbitals and Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers The orbital letters are associated with the angular momentum quantum number, which is assigned an integer value from 0 to 3. The s correlates to 0, p to 1, d to 2, and f to 3. The angular momentum quantum number can be used to give the shapes of the electronic orbitals. What Does S, P, D, F Stand For? The orbital names s, p, d, and f stand for names given to groups of lines originally noted in the spectra of the alkali metals. These line groups are called sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental. Shapes of Orbitals and Electron Density Patterns The s orbitals are spherical, while p orbitals are polar and oriented in particular directions (x, y, and z). It may be simpler to think of these two letters in terms of orbital shapes (d and f arent described as readily). However, if you look at a cross-section of an orbital, it isnt uniform. For the s orbital, for example, there are shells of higher and lower electron density. The density near the nucleus is very low. Its not zero, however, so there is a small chance of finding an electron within the atomic nucleus. What the Orbital Shape Means The electron configuration of an atom denotes the distribution of electrons among available shells. At any point in time, an electron can be anywhere, but its probably contained somewhere in the volume described by the orbital shape. Electrons can only move between orbitals by absorbing or emitting a packet or quantum of energy. The standard notation lists the subshell symbols, one after another. The number of electrons contained in each subshell is stated explicitly. For example, the electron configuration of beryllium, with an atomic (and electron) number of 4, is 1s22s2 or [He]2s2. The superscript is the number of electrons in the level. For beryllium, there are two electrons in the 1s orbital and 2 electrons in the 2s orbital. The number in front of the energy level indicates relative energy. For example, 1s is lower energy than 2s, which in turn is lower energy than 2p. The number in front of the energy level also indicates its distance from the nucleus. The 1s is closer to the atomic nucleus than 2s. Electron Filling Pattern Electrons fill up energy levels in a predictable manner. The electron filling pattern is: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f s can hold 2 electronsp can hold 6 electronsd can hold 10 electronsf can hold 14 electrons Note that individual orbitals hold a maximum of two electrons. There can be two electrons within an s-orbital, p-orbital, or d-orbital. There are more orbitals within f than d, and so on.

The Life, Work and Influence of Brunel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Life, Work and Influence of Brunel - Essay Example Brunel was born in Hampshire in the year 1806. He was sent to France so that his earlier education could be completed in a good manner. At the age of 20, he was given the post of chief assistant engineer at the Thames Tunnel, which was proclaimed as his father’s greatest achievements. This Thames Tunnel runs between Wapping and Rotherhithe on a river. Brunel worked for a couple of years nearly to create a tunnel under the London’s River Thames, which had tunnellers driving along a shaft which ran in a horizontal fashion from one side of Thames River to another and this was made difficult by extremely demanding conditions which were met all through this way. His father was the chief engineer of this piece of architecture which was later to become a hallmark of courage and state of the art engineering. The composition of the river bed was such that it was filled with water logged sediments and gravels at the Rotherhithe edge plus the difficult conditions added up towards the tunneling machine’s problems since the work required a great deal of courage and determination was hazard was written large on the face of it, right from the beginning. Because of these very reasons, the tunnel was often expected to fall down on its own instable trunks but it was to the management’s considerable thinking that they allowed sp ectators to view it from a lower angle. The workers really had a very incomprehensible time at the time of building up this piece of engineering since in those times Thames was a little better than an open sewer as it contained foul smell with contaminated water running all over it.

Business organisations law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business organisations law - Coursework Example It means that the liability of actual authority is greater compared to that of apparent authority because there is an agreement already undertaken. Actual authority is said to enjoy more power than an agent with apparent authority because a third party will usually be unaware of the terms and conditions of the agreement between the principal and his agent and thus he will be unaware of the extent of the agent’s actual authority. According to John D Maltas, an agent’s apparent authority will be unaffected by limitations on the actual authority, i.e. it is easier for a third party to establish that the agent acted within the scope of his apparent authority rather than the agent’s actual authority (John D Maltas, p 43) and hence he is said to have more power than apparent authority. Richard A. Mann and Barry S. Roberts emphasize that an apparent authority can not exist where the principal is undisclosed because, apparent authority is the power resulting from acts that appear to the third party to be authorized by the principal. (Richard A. Mann and Barry S. Roberts, p. 350) Normally an agent needs to disclose to his principal all material facts known to him and circumstances that may influence his principal when entering in to contracts. Once an agent fails to disclose these facts, he is not entitled to commission. Suppose, the agent has received any profit resulting from non-disclosure is recoverable by the principal (John D Maltas, p 49). This has been well explained by S. A. Christensen and W. D. Duncan. When one party to a contract pays a secret commission to the agent and does not disclose this to the principal, the party takes the risk of non-disclosure. A party who deals secretly with the agent of another will be considered to have committed a fraud against the principal and cannot later defend the validity of the transaction. This will require the principal to return any benefits received under the transaction, because this will not prohibit him

Against Same Sex Marriage Essay Example for Free

Against Same Sex Marriage Essay The legalization of the marriage between same sex couples will permanently change the rite of marriage in our society. The legalization of homosexual marriage will quickly destroy the traditional family. Marriage is the institution that forms and upholds for society, the cultural and social values and symbol related to procreation. That is, it establishes the values that govern the transmission of human life to the next generation and the nurturing of that life in the basic societal unit, the family. Through marriage our society works out the relationship of two people who will together create and nurture a new generation. To change the definition of marriage to include same sex marriage couples would destroy its capacity to function in many ways. It could no longer represent procreative relationships of opposite sex marriages.Reproduction is the fundamental occurrence on which the future of life depends. It is the primary reason why marriage is so important to society. In same sex marriages procreation would be eliminated entirely. First, when the state sanctions homosexual relationships and gives them its blessing, the younger generation becomes confused about sexual identity and quickly loses its understanding of lifelong commitments, emotional bonding, sexual purity, the role of children in a family, and from spiritual prospective, the sanctity of marriage. Marriage is reduced to a partnership that provides attractive benefits and sexual convenience. Cohabitation and short term relationships are the inevitable result. Second, the introduction of legalized gay marriages will lead to polygamy and other alternatives to the one man, on woman unions. Why will gay marriage set the table for polygamy? Because there is no place to stop once the line has been crossed. Historically, the definition of marriage has rested on a foundation of tradition, legal precedent, theology, and the overwhelming support of the people. After the introduction of marriage between homosexuals it will be supported by nothing more substantiated than the opinion of a single judge or by a black-robed panel of justices (Marriage under Fire). After their decision, the family will consist of little more than someones interpretation of rights. Given that unstable legal judgment, it is certain some self-possessed judge, somewhere, will soon rule that three men or three women can marry. How about group marriage or marriage between cousins, or marriage between parent and child? How about marriage between a man and his animal? Anything allegedly linked to civil rights will be doable. The legal underpinnings for marriage will have been destroyed. These other couples restricted from marrying are not equivalent to homosexual couples, but are necessary to illustrate that marriage is heavily regulated, and for good reason. When a state recognizes a marriage, it bestows upon the couple certain benefits which are costly to both the state and other individuals. Collecting a deceased spouses social security, claiming an extra tax exemption for a spouse, and having the right to be covered under a spouses health insurance policy are just a few examples of its costly benefits associated with marriage. In a sense, a married couple receives a subsidy. A marriage between two unrelated heterosexuals is likely to result in a family with children. For this reason, states have, in varying degrees, restricted from marriage, couples unlikely to produce children. One may argue that lesbians are capable of procreating via artificial insemination, so the state does have an interest in recognizing lesbian marriages, but a lesbians sexual relationship, committed or not, has no bearing on her ability to reproduce (Single Parent: What Helps, What Hurts). However, there is ample evidence that children need both female and male parent for proper development. It is essential for a child to be nurtured by parents of both sexes if a child is to learn to function in a society made up of both sexes (Life without Father). With the legalization of homosexual marriage, every public school in the nation will be required to teach that this lifestyle is the moral equivalent of traditional marriage between a woman and a man. Textbooks, even in conservative states, will have to depict man/man and woman/woman relationships and stories written for children as young as elementary or even kindergarten, will have to give equal space to homosexuals. Every public school will also be forced to teach that same sex marriage and homosexuality are perfectly normal. They will teach little boys  and little girls that husband and wife and father and moother are merely optional for a family and therfore, meaningless (No Gay Marriage). Same sex families deny children either a mother or father. In certain cases, the same sex family is not driven by the needs of children, but rather by the radical wishes of a small group of adults. Thousands of published social science, psychological and medical studies show that children living in fatherless families, on average, suffer dramatically in every measure of well-being. These children suffer from higher levels of loneliness, physical or mental illness, behavior problems, educa tional failure or criminal troubles. The third reason marriage between homosexuals will destroy traditional marriage is that this is the ultimate goal of activists, and they will not stop until they achieve it. Homosexual activists, with their inner power and exhilaration, feel the political climate is right to tell us what they have wanted all along. Gay marriages are likely to do for gay rights what the rallying cry of abortion on demand did for the Equal Rights Amendment and the womens movement. It diverts the real debate on every level. It reduces the cause of gay rights to a single issue. But the real deal is most gays and lesbians do not want to marry each other. They do not want to entangle themselves in all sorts of legal constraints (Single Parent What Helps, What Hurts). In a perfect democratic world, gay marriage would be an option for those who want it. However, this world is not a perfect democracy, and the fight for gay marriage is the wrong fight at the wrong time (Focus on Family). In conclusion, the reason for excluding same sex couples from marriage matters: If the reason for denying homosexual marriage is that we have no respect for same sex couples and their relationships and want to give the message that homosexuality is wrong, then that is discrimination and that is wrong. On the other hand, if the reason is to keep the very nature, essence and substance of marriage intact, and the essence is to protect the procreative relationship, then excluding same sex couples from marriage is ethically acceptable. This such refusal is not discrimination. Ethics requires us to take the least invasive, least restrictive alternative, reasonably available and likely to be effective in achieving a justified  goal. Maintaining a traditional marriage and legally recognizing same sex partnerships fulfills that ethical requirement (Why Marriage Matters). Gay and lesbian people have a right to form meaningful relationships. They do not have a right to redefine marriage for all of us. What will happen to society if marriage becomes anything or everything or nothing? The short answer is that the state will lose its compelling interest in marital relationships altogether. After marriage has been redefined, divorces will be obtained instantly, will not involve a court, and will take on the status of a drivers license or hunting permit. With the family out of the way, all rights and privileges of marriage will accrue to gay and lesbian partners without the legal entanglements and commitments associated with it. These are a few reasons why I am against homosexual marriage. Legalizing it will change everything, especially the institution of the family. Every society needs natural marriage- as many men as possible each finding a woman, caring for and committing himself exclusively to her- working together to create and raise the next generation.

Essay example --

The internet is a system where the global network of computers are connected by having constant sending and receiving of data using the transmission control protocol or internet protocol as a channel (Team, 2012) (Apache). Internet is also known as a virtual space where people can retrieve information, communicate with others around the world and many other activities, especially the baby boomers and the generation X. Baby boomers are people born between the year 1946 to the year of 1964 (Library, 2013); while generation X are individuals born in between the years of 1966 to 1976 (Schroer). They are the group of people where they face troubles and problems in adapting towards the internet technology. The following paragraphs will be their struggles and also the ways to help them adopting the internet technology. As people grow older, their ability of learning new things tends to slow down. Thus due to their gradually slowing learning pace, the baby boomers and the generation X are experiencing hard times to adopt with the new technologies. This is a situation and a fact that is unable to avoid because this is human nature. Even if they tried to learn a new technology, before they could even fully learn it, another new technology will be invented. The baby boomers and the generation X just could not follow the fast pace of changes in the technology world. Though their learning pace is slowing down it does not mean they do not have the ability to learn at all. If they are willing to learn and hardworking enough, they can still be able to cope with the new technology. To the baby boomers and the generation X who always feels that the current style is the best; they will be using the basic model cell phones. This is because to them,... ...nformation is needed, such as online bank transferring website can strengthen the security of their webpages. This can boost the confidence level of the baby boomers and the generation X towards internet banking and increase the sense of reliability of online banking, which can then benefit both parties. Inform the baby boomers and generation X about the advantages and the usefulness of password, where it acts as the key to access the information stored online and it also can actually protect leaking of information to others. In conclusion, the baby boomers and generation X are having difficult times in handling the non-stop developing technology field. Many of them do not have the ability to or a chance to have contact with the technology. Things need to be done to help them to cope with the new technology so that they will not be left out from the modern society. Essay example -- The internet is a system where the global network of computers are connected by having constant sending and receiving of data using the transmission control protocol or internet protocol as a channel (Team, 2012) (Apache). Internet is also known as a virtual space where people can retrieve information, communicate with others around the world and many other activities, especially the baby boomers and the generation X. Baby boomers are people born between the year 1946 to the year of 1964 (Library, 2013); while generation X are individuals born in between the years of 1966 to 1976 (Schroer). They are the group of people where they face troubles and problems in adapting towards the internet technology. The following paragraphs will be their struggles and also the ways to help them adopting the internet technology. As people grow older, their ability of learning new things tends to slow down. Thus due to their gradually slowing learning pace, the baby boomers and the generation X are experiencing hard times to adopt with the new technologies. This is a situation and a fact that is unable to avoid because this is human nature. Even if they tried to learn a new technology, before they could even fully learn it, another new technology will be invented. The baby boomers and the generation X just could not follow the fast pace of changes in the technology world. Though their learning pace is slowing down it does not mean they do not have the ability to learn at all. If they are willing to learn and hardworking enough, they can still be able to cope with the new technology. To the baby boomers and the generation X who always feels that the current style is the best; they will be using the basic model cell phones. This is because to them,... ...nformation is needed, such as online bank transferring website can strengthen the security of their webpages. This can boost the confidence level of the baby boomers and the generation X towards internet banking and increase the sense of reliability of online banking, which can then benefit both parties. Inform the baby boomers and generation X about the advantages and the usefulness of password, where it acts as the key to access the information stored online and it also can actually protect leaking of information to others. In conclusion, the baby boomers and generation X are having difficult times in handling the non-stop developing technology field. Many of them do not have the ability to or a chance to have contact with the technology. Things need to be done to help them to cope with the new technology so that they will not be left out from the modern society.

Colonial System (Summary)

The Philippine condition was a reflection of the political, economic and socio-religious developments of Spain. During the 16th and the 17th century almost all European monarchs adopted the political idea of absolutism as well as the economic system of mercantilism. Under the system of mercantilism, the king was involved in extensive intervention of any economic life to foster national growth. The Spanish government was highly centralized in form.All the Spanish governmental powers were all undertaken by this council; executive, legislative and judicial, and were transmitted to all governor-generals in each respective colony. The royal orders and edicts became the guides of any governor-general in administering the Philippines. He was at first appointed by the Viceroy of Mexico and later by the monarch of Spain. His vast powers and the distance of the Philippines from either Spain or Mexico shaped natural tendencies of a governor-general to be abusive. The Philippines was divided int o provinces and special districts.They were known as alcaldias and each under the charge of an alcalde mayor. The special districts were the unconquered regions or corregimientos, where Filipino resistance still went on. Unlike the governor-general, the alcalde mayor never had any legislative power. Only judicial cases over his towns were under his jurisdiction cases involving the amount of not more than Php200. The church prevailing principle of adaptation greatly influenced the Spanish government to relatively retain the prehispanic political structure of the Filipinos.In the beginning of Legaspi’s conquest, the office of gobernadorcillo, which is equivalent to the present town mayor, was heredity; opened to descendants of the datu or chieftains. The mayor political change in the choice of a gobernadorcillo came in 1847, when the Spanish Crown directed and sent the first Spanish Code of Laws for the native Filipinos. The election laws of 1847, according to Arcilla, required the following qualifications: a) he must be a native born; b) he must be 25 years old; c) able to read and write in Spanish; and d) never been guilty of any crime.The election was set in November, for a term of 2 years. The cabeza de barangay remained appointive; all were under the supervisory of the local priest and the alcalde mayor. The governadorcillo was tasked to supervise the collection of taxes in his town and pay the difference from his pocket if the collection of the taxes would not tally to the defective; inadequate census prepared and estimated by the Spanish friars. What made the Philippines government form unique was the union of church and state.By virtue of the Patronato Real, the Spanish king had the right to rule lands discovered, with a duty of supporting the material needs of the church in those lands. In other words, the king had the right to command and demand what was necessary to carry out the task he accepted from Rome, in order to help spread the Christian religion. The mighty Philip II, who had assumed these religious rights, seemed that his interest was in his mind, so, when we speak of the church in the Philippines during the Spanish regime, we mean particularly the Spanish church serving the ends of Spanish empire.The marriage between the church and state enabled the religious to occupy and dominate significant governmental positions. Historians acknowledge the fact that the real representative of the Spanish Crown was the church not the state. The Spanish Church was too conservative while they were responsible for the Christianization of the Filipinos they were also deterrents to nation’s progress thus, in the 19th century the Filipino propagandists, reformists and revolutionists demanded their expulsion from the Philippines.